The World Of Lithium Batteries
Acknowledgement: This article is a brief summery on Lithium Batteries and is not intended to answer all questions. In general, it is our recommendation that consumers should first do their own research, before purchasing lithium batteries. Qychex Power And Energy Systems, assumes no responsibility for the informative information in this article, and states that we are not in association with, or affiliated with any of the lithium battery companies. Our opinions are based on readily available public information and from news reports from lithium battery manufacturers. The issues outlined in this article are intended for educational purposes only.
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Qychex Power & Energy Systems Presents
Lithium-Ion Battery Technology
NOVA - Search For The Super Battery
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Presented by NOVA and PBS 2/1/2017
This video is for educational purposes only. The documentary is a completion of some of the latest technology that is now available for the use of, and manufacturer technics of Lithium Batteries and some electronic devices. This video is intended to point out technological innovations along with demonstrations of improvements and weaknesses of Lithium Batteries. |
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Man's Quest For Energy
Ancient Egyptians had electricity and batteries thousands of years ago.
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18650 Lithium Battery History
If you are a consumer of electrical goods, such as a: laptop computer, iPhone, or vape device, you are a consumer who most likely uses a type of 18650 battery, as it's source of power. Even Tesla uses them in their vehicles such as the Tesla Roadster, Model S and the Model X. These batteries are now widely sought-after, because of their unique power capabilities. Did you know that Lithium is a naturally occurring element that was first discovered in 1817, and was first used as a mood stabilizer. To date, medical treatment using Lithium still exist. |
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What is an 18650 battery? To put it simply, an 18650 battery is a size classification for lithium-ion batteries. The “18650” part comes from their size. They are 18mm in diameter, and 65mm in height. The zero at the end simply means it’s cylindrical. Lithium batteries are a great option for today’s high-end electronics as these cells typically have much higher capacities than alkaline batteries. Although rechargeable batteries tend to cost a little more than standard alkaline batteries, you will see big savings when it comes time for replacement. |
Typical 18650 Batteries 
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Fake Lithium Batteries: With so many companies and products using 18650 battery cells, the competition for the market is fierce. Therefore, it is more important then ever to watch out for "Fake 18650 Battery Cells". Through-out this lithium battery article, we will attempt to explain the importance of learning more about lithium batteries before you buy them. Our message is "Don't fall into the category of the some-what advised consumer". Many people think that just because they have gotten information from a friend, or maybe just read an article or two on batteries, they are now qualified as a person with comprehensive and authoritative knowledge on the subject of Lithium Batteries. So here’s the issue. When it comes to lithium-ion batteries (LIB), Chinese manufacturers are putting ANYTHING on the label of their batteries, that they think will help SELL their product. Meaning, inflated battery capacities, that are not representative of the actual battery capacity.
All lithium-ion cells have a rated capacity…measured in milliamp-hours (mAh). The higher the figure, the more power it can offer. As of the year 2016, 18650 batteries manufacturers, have not yet produced a lithium battery with a capacity over 3600mAh. That was the current capacity limit then. There are most likely, advances in the development of lithium battery that now support greater battery capacity. BUT…according to the makers and marketers of budget batteries, there is no battery capacity limit. If they think by putting 4000mAh or higher on their battery labels, will help them sell more batteries, they will do so in a heart beat. So, we have included some informative video's below on Fake Lithium Batteries. You can thank us latter.
Fake Lithium Batteries: With so many companies and products using 18650 battery cells, the competition for the market is fierce. Therefore, it is more important then ever to watch out for "Fake 18650 Battery Cells". Through-out this lithium battery article, we will attempt to explain the importance of learning more about lithium batteries before you buy them. Our message is "Don't fall into the category of the some-what advised consumer". Many people think that just because they have gotten information from a friend, or maybe just read an article or two on batteries, they are now qualified as a person with comprehensive and authoritative knowledge on the subject of Lithium Batteries. So here’s the issue. When it comes to lithium-ion batteries (LIB), Chinese manufacturers are putting ANYTHING on the label of their batteries, that they think will help SELL their product. Meaning, inflated battery capacities, that are not representative of the actual battery capacity.
All lithium-ion cells have a rated capacity…measured in milliamp-hours (mAh). The higher the figure, the more power it can offer. As of the year 2016, 18650 batteries manufacturers, have not yet produced a lithium battery with a capacity over 3600mAh. That was the current capacity limit then. There are most likely, advances in the development of lithium battery that now support greater battery capacity. BUT…according to the makers and marketers of budget batteries, there is no battery capacity limit. If they think by putting 4000mAh or higher on their battery labels, will help them sell more batteries, they will do so in a heart beat. So, we have included some informative video's below on Fake Lithium Batteries. You can thank us latter.
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Fake 18650 China batteries Slideshow
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Fake China batteries 18650 Weight TEST
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Counterfeit Batteries from China
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Bargain 18650 Batteries: Are these bargain batteries really a bargain? Some people know that they are buying fake batteries, but are still excited about getting a Bargain Deal. They disregard any concerns for safety regarding potentials for battery fires and or explosions. They don't consider that the batteries most likely won’t hold a charge for long, or that high drain devices will only drain these batteries very quickly. So, with bargain batteries, the reality is you will be charging them MORE and USING them LESS! Coupled with that, is also the real possibility that these batteries are old, and/or come from recycled equipment. Why else would their total mAh capacity be so low, once you run a battery capacity test on them? THIS IS WHY THEY ARE SO CHEAP!! You’re literally buying something that has already been used and had most of the life drained out of it.
Safety First
After reviewing numerous articles regarding, consumers' knowledge of “Lithium Ion Battery Chemistry” (LIB), we find it astonishing, how most consumers are not even concerned about Lithium Battery Safety Concerns. Therefore, many consumers are unaware of the dangers that exist, or if they are even purchasing authentic or fake batteries. Historically, news events about LIB’s catching on fire and or causing explosions, should be a major concern/factor for all consumers of lithium batteries. We have provided a few alarming video's below, just to show how dangerous these batteries can be, and to inform consumers that there are risk-concerns that they should be aware of, especially when using these types of batteries around children.
In the video's below, you judge if these lithium batteries are, “Authentic” or just "Defective".
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Video Of a Tesla Car On Fire
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Man's Plants Catch On Fire From An E-Cig Device
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Charging Lithium-Ion Batteries
Charging and discharging batteries is called a chemical reaction. With this chemical reaction, all batteries will suffer internal corrosion and other degenerative effects also known as parasitic reactions on the electrolyte and electrodes. Therefore, special care needs to take place when charging lithium ion batteries.
For example, a "Li ion Charger" is a voltage-limiting device that has similarities to a lead acid battery charging system, but they are very different devices. The differences with Li-ion lie in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerances and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead acid battery chargers offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting to be used, because Li-ion batteries cannot accept or be overcharge, without doing some damage to the battery cells.
A Li-ion battery with the traditional cathode materials of cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum typically charge to 4.20V/cell. The tolerance is +/–50mV/cell. Some nickel-based varieties charge to 4.10V/cell; high capacity Li-ion may go to 4.30V/cell and higher. Boosting the voltage increases capacity, but going beyond specification stresses the battery and compromises safety. Even Protection circuits, or what is also called Battery Management Systems, built within a battery pack, also do not allow exceeding the set voltage.
The advised given by most lithium battery manufacturers, is that the "charge rate" of an Energy Per Cell, should be between 0.5C and 1C; the complete charge time is about 2–3 hours. Manufacturers of these cells recommend charging at 0.8C or less to prolong battery life; however, most Power Cells can take a higher charge C-rate with little stress. Charge efficiency is about 99 percent and the cell remains cool during charge.
Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF) when reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Discontinue using the battery or charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) under moderate charging speeds. Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to 3 percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker, the saturation charge will take longer accordingly. With higher current, Stage 1 is shorter but the saturation during Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge because a high voltage stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold or eliminating the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Chargers for consumer products go for maximum capacity and cannot be adjusted; extended service life is perceived less important.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified “charge-and-run” method that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2 saturation charge. “Ready” appears when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage 1. State-of-charge (SoC) at this point is about 85 percent, a level that may be sufficient for many users. Certain industrial chargers set the charge voltage threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life.
Charging and discharging batteries is called a chemical reaction. With this chemical reaction, all batteries will suffer internal corrosion and other degenerative effects also known as parasitic reactions on the electrolyte and electrodes. Therefore, special care needs to take place when charging lithium ion batteries.
For example, a "Li ion Charger" is a voltage-limiting device that has similarities to a lead acid battery charging system, but they are very different devices. The differences with Li-ion lie in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerances and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead acid battery chargers offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting to be used, because Li-ion batteries cannot accept or be overcharge, without doing some damage to the battery cells.
A Li-ion battery with the traditional cathode materials of cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum typically charge to 4.20V/cell. The tolerance is +/–50mV/cell. Some nickel-based varieties charge to 4.10V/cell; high capacity Li-ion may go to 4.30V/cell and higher. Boosting the voltage increases capacity, but going beyond specification stresses the battery and compromises safety. Even Protection circuits, or what is also called Battery Management Systems, built within a battery pack, also do not allow exceeding the set voltage.
The advised given by most lithium battery manufacturers, is that the "charge rate" of an Energy Per Cell, should be between 0.5C and 1C; the complete charge time is about 2–3 hours. Manufacturers of these cells recommend charging at 0.8C or less to prolong battery life; however, most Power Cells can take a higher charge C-rate with little stress. Charge efficiency is about 99 percent and the cell remains cool during charge.
Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF) when reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Discontinue using the battery or charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) under moderate charging speeds. Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to 3 percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker, the saturation charge will take longer accordingly. With higher current, Stage 1 is shorter but the saturation during Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge because a high voltage stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold or eliminating the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Chargers for consumer products go for maximum capacity and cannot be adjusted; extended service life is perceived less important.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified “charge-and-run” method that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2 saturation charge. “Ready” appears when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage 1. State-of-charge (SoC) at this point is about 85 percent, a level that may be sufficient for many users. Certain industrial chargers set the charge voltage threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life.
Maintenance And Care Of Lithium Batteries
Actually, there is no physical maintenance that needs to be done to a Lithium Battery. But did you know that there are many factors that go into the care and use of Lithium Batteries? Most people don’t. Lithium Batteries are a completely different chemistry make-up, then Lead Acid, Carbon-Based, or Alkaline Batteries. For example, environmental issues such as: Temperature conditions, storage of the battery, and charging and or discharges of lithium batteries, can all have dramatic effects on the life-span of the battery. For purposes of this article we will focus mainly on the most important issue, which is the charge and discharge of lithium batteries.
1. Extending The Life Cycle Of Your Lithium Battery: According to lithium battery manufactures, they report that most 18650 Li-ion Battery cells, a maximum charged voltage of 4.20V/cell, and every reduction in peak charge voltage of 0.10V/cell is said to double the cycle life. For example, a lithium-ion cell charged to 4.20V/cell typically delivers 300–500 cycles. If charged to only 4.10V/cell, the life can be prolonged to 600–1,000 cycles; 4.0V/cell should deliver 1,200–2,000 and 3.90V/cell should provide 2,400–4,000 cycles. A lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the battery stores. As a guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage lowers the overall capacity by 10%. For absolute best longevity, the optimal charge voltage is 3.92V/cell (this may vary with chemistry). Research shows that this threshold eliminates all voltage-related stresses; going lower may not gain further benefits and may induce other symptoms.
So why is it that the battery manufactures of these batteries, don’t inform consumer about these types of issues. Well, the short answer is profitability. Why would a battery manufacturer want you to know how to extend the life cycle of their product, when they know it would reduce their “Resale Profits” by up to 60 to 80%?
Actually, there is no physical maintenance that needs to be done to a Lithium Battery. But did you know that there are many factors that go into the care and use of Lithium Batteries? Most people don’t. Lithium Batteries are a completely different chemistry make-up, then Lead Acid, Carbon-Based, or Alkaline Batteries. For example, environmental issues such as: Temperature conditions, storage of the battery, and charging and or discharges of lithium batteries, can all have dramatic effects on the life-span of the battery. For purposes of this article we will focus mainly on the most important issue, which is the charge and discharge of lithium batteries.
1. Extending The Life Cycle Of Your Lithium Battery: According to lithium battery manufactures, they report that most 18650 Li-ion Battery cells, a maximum charged voltage of 4.20V/cell, and every reduction in peak charge voltage of 0.10V/cell is said to double the cycle life. For example, a lithium-ion cell charged to 4.20V/cell typically delivers 300–500 cycles. If charged to only 4.10V/cell, the life can be prolonged to 600–1,000 cycles; 4.0V/cell should deliver 1,200–2,000 and 3.90V/cell should provide 2,400–4,000 cycles. A lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the battery stores. As a guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage lowers the overall capacity by 10%. For absolute best longevity, the optimal charge voltage is 3.92V/cell (this may vary with chemistry). Research shows that this threshold eliminates all voltage-related stresses; going lower may not gain further benefits and may induce other symptoms.
So why is it that the battery manufactures of these batteries, don’t inform consumer about these types of issues. Well, the short answer is profitability. Why would a battery manufacturer want you to know how to extend the life cycle of their product, when they know it would reduce their “Resale Profits” by up to 60 to 80%?
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2. Temperature Concerns: Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature. Warming a dying battery in a mobile phone or flashlight in our jeans might provide additional runtime due to improved electrochemical reaction. This is likely also the reason why manufacturers prefer to specify batteries at a toasty 27°C (80°F). Operating a battery at elevated temperatures improves performance, but prolonged exposure will shorten the life of the battery. As all drivers in cold climates know, a warm battery cranks the car engine better than a cold one. Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and lowers a battery's capacity. A battery that provides 100 percent capacity at 27°C (80°F) will typically deliver only 50 percent at –18°C (0°F). The momentary capacity-decrease differs with battery chemistry.
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Battery Specification Label
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Chemistry Make-Up
The chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which offers high energy density but presents safety risks,[11] especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium ion manganese oxide battery (LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, or LMO), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide(LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC) offer lower energy density but longer lives and less likelihood of unfortunate events in real-world use (e.g., fire, explosion, etc.). Such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO 2 or NCA) and lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12 or LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
The newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may be kept pressurized. A battery cell charged too quickly could cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional battery-specific tests. There have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Galaxy Note 7 recall for battery fires.
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO22) batteries are made from lithium carbonate and cobalt and feature very stable capacities along with high-specific energy, making them a popular choice for use with mobile devices such as smartphones, laptops, and digital cameras.
Internally, they are composed of a cobalt oxide cathode and a carbon graphite anode. During discharge, lithium ions travel from anode to cathode, and the process reverses during the recharging cycle. These batteries do have some drawbacks, including a relatively short life cycle, low thermal stability, and smaller load capabilities—meaning they need frequent recharging.
Lithium manganese oxide (MnO2) batteries actually come in two versions- one with a spinel structure (LiMn2O4), which features a cathode 3D framework for the insertion and desertion of Li-ions during the charge and discharge cycle of the battery. The other comes in layered rock-salt structure (Li2MnO3) with alternating layers of lithium-ions and lithium/manganese ions on the cathode.
Both offer fast charging and high-current discharging with increased thermal stability over cobalt oxide batteries and provide enhanced safety as a result, making them ideal for medical devices, electric vehicles, and power tools.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries use the iron phosphate for the cathode along with a graphite electrode combined with metallic current collector grid for the anode. These batteries are more tolerant at full-charge conditions and are less prone to stress than other Li-ion batteries when subjected to prolonged high voltages.
As a result, these types benefit from low-resistant properties, thereby increasing their safety and thermal abilities, making them ideal for electric motorcycles and vehicles. The only drawback is their low-voltage capacities and offers less energy than other types of Li-ion batteries.
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) batteries are made using several different elements commonly found in other Li-ion batteries and use a combination of nickel, manganese, and cobalt for the cathode. While the exact material ratios vary by manufacturer, the common combinations are usually 60% nickel, 20% manganese, and 20% cobalt.
Like the other types, these batteries can have either high-specific energy or high-specific power (not both), but the inclusion of nickel provides the cell with the high-specific energy, although it also has reduced stability.
Manganese, on the other hand, provides low internal resistance but has the drawback of low specific energy. Combining the two, however, enhances each other’s strengths, making them suitable for EV powertrains and cordless power tools.
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) batteries are not conventional in the consumer industry but have promise for EV manufacturers (and other specialized applications), as they provide high-specific energy options, reasonably good specific power, and a decent lifespan.
These types are not as safe as the others listed here and as such, require special safety monitoring measures to be employed for use in EVs. They are also more costly to manufacture, limiting their viability for use in other applications.
Lithium titanate (LTO) batteries replace the graphite in the anode with lithium-titanate nanocrystals, giving it a larger surface area over carbon, allowing the electrons to enter and exit the anode very quickly. This, in turn, makes it one of the more fastest-charging batteries in the Li-ion category.
They do have their disadvantages, however, as they have lower inherent voltage and lower specific-energy ratings over conventional lithium technologies. That being said, they are one of the safer platforms regarding thermal tolerances, making them incredibly safe for use in EVs and e-bikes with possibilities in the military and aerospace industries.
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Battery References:
1. Battery University
2. Qychex R & D Department
3. NOVA
4. PBS
The chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which offers high energy density but presents safety risks,[11] especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium ion manganese oxide battery (LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, or LMO), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide(LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC) offer lower energy density but longer lives and less likelihood of unfortunate events in real-world use (e.g., fire, explosion, etc.). Such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO 2 or NCA) and lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12 or LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
The newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte and may be kept pressurized. A battery cell charged too quickly could cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and additional battery-specific tests. There have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Galaxy Note 7 recall for battery fires.
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO22) batteries are made from lithium carbonate and cobalt and feature very stable capacities along with high-specific energy, making them a popular choice for use with mobile devices such as smartphones, laptops, and digital cameras.
Internally, they are composed of a cobalt oxide cathode and a carbon graphite anode. During discharge, lithium ions travel from anode to cathode, and the process reverses during the recharging cycle. These batteries do have some drawbacks, including a relatively short life cycle, low thermal stability, and smaller load capabilities—meaning they need frequent recharging.
Lithium manganese oxide (MnO2) batteries actually come in two versions- one with a spinel structure (LiMn2O4), which features a cathode 3D framework for the insertion and desertion of Li-ions during the charge and discharge cycle of the battery. The other comes in layered rock-salt structure (Li2MnO3) with alternating layers of lithium-ions and lithium/manganese ions on the cathode.
Both offer fast charging and high-current discharging with increased thermal stability over cobalt oxide batteries and provide enhanced safety as a result, making them ideal for medical devices, electric vehicles, and power tools.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries use the iron phosphate for the cathode along with a graphite electrode combined with metallic current collector grid for the anode. These batteries are more tolerant at full-charge conditions and are less prone to stress than other Li-ion batteries when subjected to prolonged high voltages.
As a result, these types benefit from low-resistant properties, thereby increasing their safety and thermal abilities, making them ideal for electric motorcycles and vehicles. The only drawback is their low-voltage capacities and offers less energy than other types of Li-ion batteries.
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) batteries are made using several different elements commonly found in other Li-ion batteries and use a combination of nickel, manganese, and cobalt for the cathode. While the exact material ratios vary by manufacturer, the common combinations are usually 60% nickel, 20% manganese, and 20% cobalt.
Like the other types, these batteries can have either high-specific energy or high-specific power (not both), but the inclusion of nickel provides the cell with the high-specific energy, although it also has reduced stability.
Manganese, on the other hand, provides low internal resistance but has the drawback of low specific energy. Combining the two, however, enhances each other’s strengths, making them suitable for EV powertrains and cordless power tools.
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) batteries are not conventional in the consumer industry but have promise for EV manufacturers (and other specialized applications), as they provide high-specific energy options, reasonably good specific power, and a decent lifespan.
These types are not as safe as the others listed here and as such, require special safety monitoring measures to be employed for use in EVs. They are also more costly to manufacture, limiting their viability for use in other applications.
Lithium titanate (LTO) batteries replace the graphite in the anode with lithium-titanate nanocrystals, giving it a larger surface area over carbon, allowing the electrons to enter and exit the anode very quickly. This, in turn, makes it one of the more fastest-charging batteries in the Li-ion category.
They do have their disadvantages, however, as they have lower inherent voltage and lower specific-energy ratings over conventional lithium technologies. That being said, they are one of the safer platforms regarding thermal tolerances, making them incredibly safe for use in EVs and e-bikes with possibilities in the military and aerospace industries.
______________________________________________________________________________
Battery References:
1. Battery University
2. Qychex R & D Department
3. NOVA
4. PBS